Unit IV: Instruction Set Architecture | CSE211: COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND DESIGN | B.Tech CSE

Unit IV: Instruction Set Architecture

⭐Numerical Formula:

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• CPI (Cycles Per Instruction):

$\text{CPI}=\frac{\text{Total Cycles}}{\text{Instruction Count}}$

• Execution Time:

$\text{Time}=\text{Instruction Count}\times \text{CPI}\times \text{Clock Cycle Time}$

• MIPS:

$\text{MIPS}=\frac{\text{Instruction Count}}{\text{Execution Time (in seconds)}\times 10^6}$

• Speedup and Amdahl's Law:

$S=\frac{1}{(1-P)+\frac{P}{\text{Speedup Factor}}}$

⭐Introduction to Instruction Set Architecture and Microcode: Architecture & Microcode, Machine Models, ISA characteristics, Pipeline

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Architecture & Microcode

• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):
  • Defines the set of instructions a computer can execute.
  • Acts as the interface between hardware (processor) and software (programs).
  • Determines fundamental aspects like the instruction formats, addressing modes, registers, and data types.
• Microcode:
  • A lower-level set of instructions or signals used by complex instruction set computing (CISC) CPUs to implement higher-level instructions.
  • Translates complex machine instructions into simpler, sequenced microinstructions.
  • Microcode is stored in special, faster storage within the CPU (like ROM or RAM).

Machine Models

• Von Neumann Model:
  • A traditional architecture where instructions and data share the same memory and data bus.
  • Known for the Von Neumann Bottleneck, as the single data path for instructions and data can cause delays.
  • Characteristics include simplicity and ease of use for general-purpose computing.
• Harvard Model:
  • A design with separate memory and buses for instructions and data.
  • Allows simultaneous access to instructions and data, increasing performance and reducing potential bottlenecks.
  • Often used in digital signal processing and microcontrollers.
• Modified Harvard Model:
  • Combines features of both Von Neumann and Harvard models, sometimes allowing transfer between instruction and data memories.
  • Adds flexibility and is common in modern CPUs.

ISA Characteristics

• Complexity and Design (RISC vs. CISC):
  • RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer): Simple, minimal instructions, focusing on a small set of efficient operations.
  • CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer): Larger set of complex instructions, often with microcoded implementation for complex instructions.
• Instruction Types and Formats:
  • Instruction Types: Includes arithmetic, logical, control, and data movement instructions.
  • Formats: Varying instruction sizes (fixed or variable) and formats based on operation types.
• Registers:
  • Defines the types and numbers of registers (like general-purpose and floating-point).
  • Registers are typically limited in number, which affects the efficiency of the ISA.
• Memory Addressing Modes:
  • Different methods to access memory, such as immediate, direct, indirect, indexed, and base-plus-offset.
  • Determines the flexibility and ease with which programs can access data.
• Data Types:
  • Defines supported data types (integers, floating-point numbers, characters, etc.).
  • Affects the range of applications the ISA can handle and the precision of operations.

Pipeline

• Basic Concept:
  • A method of instruction execution that divides operations into multiple stages (e.g., fetch, decode, execute, memory access, and write-back).
  • Each instruction is processed in different stages simultaneously, allowing overlap and improving throughput.
• Pipeline Stages:
  • Fetch: Retrieves the instruction from memory.
  • Decode: Decodes the instruction and prepares required control signals.
  • Execute: Performs the operation (e.g., arithmetic or logic operation).
  • Memory Access: Reads or writes data from/to memory if needed.
  • Write-back: Stores the result in a register for later use.
• Pipeline Hazards:
  • Data Hazards: Occur when instructions depend on the results of previous ones that are still in the pipeline.
  • Control Hazards: Happen when the pipeline encounters branch instructions, potentially causing it to fetch the wrong instruction.
  • Structural Hazards: Arise when hardware resources are insufficient to execute instructions in parallel.
• Advantages of Pipelining:
  • Increased Throughput: More instructions are completed in a shorter time frame.
  • Efficient Utilization of CPU Resources: Reduces idle time by overlapping instruction execution stages.
  • Improved Performance: Enables higher instruction-per-cycle (IPC) execution, which improves overall CPU efficiency.

⭐Review: Microcoded Microarchitecture, Pipeline Basics, Structural and Data Hazards

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Microcoded Microarchitecture

• Microarchitecture Overview:
  • Refers to the internal architecture of the CPU, implementing the instructions defined by the ISA.
  • Consists of functional blocks like the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), control unit, registers, and cache.
• Role of Microcode:
  • Microcode is a layer of low-level instructions that translates complex machine instructions into sequences of simpler micro-operations.
  • Microinstructions control each CPU function in sequence, enabling execution of complex instructions in CPUs, especially in CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) architectures.
• Microprogram Control Unit:
  • The part of the CPU that stores and manages microinstructions.
  • Microcode is typically stored in a small, high-speed memory (e.g., control store) within the CPU.
  • When an instruction is decoded, the control unit uses microcode to generate signals for various CPU components, guiding them through the steps required for that instruction.
• Advantages:
  • Allows easier implementation of complex instructions by breaking them into manageable steps.
  • Makes updating and extending instructions easier without changing the hardware, as changes can be made in microcode.
• Disadvantages:
  • Adds latency due to the additional layer between machine instructions and execution.
  • Increases complexity and may slow down execution speed, especially compared to RISC architectures that rely on fewer, simpler instructions.

Pipeline Basics

• Concept of Pipelining:
  • Pipelining divides the CPU’s instruction cycle into multiple stages, enabling multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously.
  • Common pipeline stages include Fetch (IF), Decode (ID), Execute (EX), Memory Access (MEM), and Write-back (WB).
• Stages of a Pipeline:
  • Instruction Fetch (IF): Retrieves the next instruction from memory.
  • Instruction Decode (ID): Decodes the instruction to identify the operation and operands.
  • Execute (EX): Performs the operation, like an arithmetic or logic function.
  • Memory Access (MEM): Accesses memory for read/write operations, if needed.
  • Write-back (WB): Writes results back to registers or memory.
• Pipeline Depth:
  • Refers to the number of stages in the pipeline.
  • More stages (deeper pipeline) can improve instruction throughput but may introduce more latency, especially if hazards occur.
• Benefits of Pipelining:
  • Higher Throughput: Enables more instructions to be completed in less time.
  • Efficient Resource Usage: Minimizes idle time by utilizing each pipeline stage simultaneously.
  • Reduced Latency per Instruction: Each instruction is broken down into smaller, more manageable operations, allowing faster instruction cycles.
• Challenges with Pipelining:
  • Requires careful management to avoid stalling or inefficient use of resources.
  • Susceptible to hazards, which can stall the pipeline and reduce efficiency.

Pipeline Hazards

• Structural Hazards:
  • Definition: Occur when multiple instructions require the same hardware resources at the same time.
  • Examples:
    • When two instructions simultaneously need to access the same memory or the same arithmetic unit (ALU).
    • A common problem in processors with limited resources or no duplicated functional units.
  • Solution: Resource duplication (e.g., multiple ALUs) or effective resource scheduling to reduce conflicts.
• Data Hazards:
  • Definition: Arise when an instruction depends on the results of a previous instruction that has not yet completed its execution in the pipeline.
  • Types of Data Hazards:
    • Read After Write (RAW): The current instruction depends on the result of a previous instruction still in the pipeline (most common).
    • Write After Read (WAR): Occurs if an instruction writes to a register or memory location before a previous instruction has read from it.
    • Write After Write (WAW): Happens if two instructions write to the same register or memory location in the wrong order.
  • Solutions:
    • Data Forwarding/Bypassing: Redirects the result of a previous instruction directly to the next one without waiting for it to complete.
    • Stalling: Pauses the pipeline until the required data becomes available.
    • Pipeline Interlocks: Control logic that automatically inserts stalls to prevent data hazards.

⭐Cache Review: Control Hazards - Jump, Branch, Others

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Cache Review

• Purpose of Cache:
  • A cache is a small, high-speed memory located close to the CPU that stores frequently accessed data and instructions.
  • Reduces the average time to access data from main memory, improving CPU efficiency and performance.
• Cache Types:
  • Instruction Cache (I-Cache): Stores instructions to reduce latency in instruction fetching.
  • Data Cache (D-Cache): Stores data to reduce latency in data access.
  • Unified Cache: A single cache that stores both instructions and data.
• Cache Levels:
  • L1 Cache: Closest to the CPU, extremely fast but small in size.
  • L2 Cache: Larger and slightly slower, provides data if not found in L1.
  • L3 Cache: Found in some processors, shared among cores, larger and slower than L1 and L2.
• Cache Mapping Techniques:
  • Direct-Mapped Cache: Each memory block maps to exactly one location in the cache.
  • Fully Associative Cache: Any memory block can be stored in any cache location.
  • Set-Associative Cache: A combination where each memory block maps to a set, and can be placed in any location within that set.
• Cache Performance:
  • Hit Rate: Percentage of cache accesses where the data is found in the cache.
  • Miss Rate: Percentage of accesses where the data is not found, requiring a fetch from main memory.
  • Miss Penalty: The additional time needed to retrieve data from main memory when there is a cache miss.

Control Hazards

• Overview of Control Hazards:
  • Control hazards, or branch hazards, occur when the pipeline encounters instructions that alter the program counter (PC) and disrupt the flow of instruction execution.
  • Common in instructions like jumps, branches, and other control operations, leading to potential pipeline stalls and reduced efficiency.
• Types of Control Hazards:
  • Jump Instructions:
    • Definition: Unconditional instructions that move the program counter to a new memory address.
    • Example: JMP in assembly language, where the PC is set to a specific address.
    • Impact on Pipeline: Causes the pipeline to discard instructions after the jump instruction if they are not part of the target address path.
  • Branch Instructions:
    • Definition: Conditional (like BEQ, BNE) or unconditional instructions that may alter the PC based on certain conditions.
    • Example: A conditional branch that changes the PC only if a condition (like a comparison result) is true.
    • Pipeline Impact:
      • Requires the pipeline to wait until the branch decision is made, which can cause stalls.
      • If the branch is taken, instructions after the branch must be discarded, wasting pipeline cycles.
    • Solution: Branch prediction techniques attempt to guess the branch outcome to keep the pipeline filled.
• Other Control Instructions:
  • Function Calls and Returns:
    • Function Calls: Jump to a different code section, potentially adding complexity if registers or the stack needs to be saved/restored.
    • Returns: Control flow returns to the calling function, which requires restoring previous program state.
  • Interrupts and Exceptions:
    • Interrupts: Hardware-initiated events that temporarily halt the normal program flow to execute an interrupt handler.
    • Exceptions: Program-initiated control flow changes in response to errors (e.g., division by zero).
    • Impact on Pipeline: Both interrupts and exceptions disrupt the normal flow, emptying or redirecting the pipeline and causing stalls.

Solutions to Control Hazards

• Branch Prediction:
  • Static Branch Prediction: Assumes a predetermined outcome, like always assuming the branch will not be taken, which can be useful in predictable code patterns.
  • Dynamic Branch Prediction: Uses historical information about previous branches to make more accurate predictions. This approach often uses hardware structures like the Branch Prediction Buffer.
  • Types of Prediction Mechanisms:
    • One-Bit Predictor: Predicts the same outcome until a misprediction occurs.
    • Two-Bit Predictor: Requires two mispredictions before changing the predicted branch direction, offering improved accuracy.
• Branch Target Buffer (BTB):
  • A small cache memory that stores the target addresses of recently taken branches.
  • Enables quick access to the target address if the branch is taken, reducing the need to calculate the target address from scratch.
• Delayed Branching:
  • A compiler-based approach where independent instructions are rearranged to execute immediately after a branch instruction, filling potential pipeline bubbles.
  • Fill Slots with Useful Instructions: Prevents pipeline stalls by keeping the pipeline filled, even if the branch prediction is incorrect.

⭐Superscalar1: Classifying Caches, Cache Performance, Two-Way In-Order Superscalar, Fetch Logic and Alignment

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Classifying Caches

• Purpose of Cache Classification:
  • Classifying caches helps in understanding how data is stored, accessed, and managed within the cache.
  • Different cache organizations impact data retrieval speed, efficiency, and overall CPU performance.
• Types of Cache Organizations:
  • Direct-Mapped Cache:
    • Each memory block maps to exactly one cache location.
    • Simple to implement and faster due to minimal search logic but prone to high conflict misses if frequently accessed data maps to the same cache line.
  • Fully Associative Cache:
    • Any memory block can be stored in any cache line, providing the most flexibility and reducing conflict misses.
    • More complex and slower due to the need to search all lines to locate data.
  • Set-Associative Cache:
    • A compromise between direct-mapped and fully associative caches.
    • Memory blocks are mapped to a subset of cache lines (a set) and can be stored in any line within that set.
    • Reduces conflict misses while maintaining simpler search logic.

Cache Performance

• Performance Metrics:
  • Cache Hit: Occurs when the requested data is found in the cache, resulting in faster data retrieval.
  • Cache Miss: Occurs when the requested data is not found, requiring data retrieval from main memory.
  • Hit Rate: The percentage of memory accesses that result in cache hits.
  • Miss Rate: The percentage of memory accesses that result in cache misses, directly affecting performance.
  • Miss Penalty: The additional time required to fetch data from main memory on a miss.
  • Average Memory Access Time (AMAT): Calculated as:
    $\text{AMAT} = \text{Hit Time} + (\text{Miss Rate} \times \text{Miss Penalty})$
• Factors Affecting Cache Performance:
  • Cache Size: Larger caches generally reduce miss rates but may increase access time.
  • Block Size: Determines the amount of data transferred on each cache miss.
  • Associativity: Higher associativity typically reduces conflict misses but increases search complexity.
• Techniques to Improve Cache Performance:
  • Prefetching: Anticipating which data will be needed soon and loading it into the cache.
  • Replacement Policies: Determines which cache line to replace on a cache miss (e.g., Least Recently Used (LRU), First-In-First-Out (FIFO)).

Two-Way In-Order Superscalar

• Superscalar Architecture:
  • A processor design where multiple instructions are issued and executed per clock cycle, increasing instruction-level parallelism.
  • Requires multiple execution units to allow simultaneous instruction processing.
• In-Order Execution:
  • Instructions are issued and executed in the order they appear in the program, without reordering.
  • Simpler design but can result in pipeline stalls if dependencies between instructions are not managed well.
• Two-Way Superscalar:
  • Allows two instructions to be issued and executed simultaneously per clock cycle.
  • Benefits: Improves throughput by allowing multiple operations without complex out-of-order execution mechanisms.
  • Challenges: Requires careful handling of dependencies and may encounter stalls if both instructions need the same resources.

Fetch Logic and Alignment

• Fetch Logic:
  • The mechanism that retrieves instructions from memory and loads them into the pipeline.
  • Determines how quickly and efficiently instructions are fed to the processor, impacting overall performance.
  • In a superscalar architecture, fetch logic must retrieve multiple instructions per cycle to keep the pipeline filled.
• Instruction Alignment:
  • Ensures that instructions are correctly positioned in memory for fast and efficient retrieval.
  • Critical in superscalar processors, as instructions must align properly with execution units.
• Challenges in Superscalar Fetching and Alignment:
  • Branch Instructions: Control hazards from branches can disrupt fetch logic, requiring branch prediction to maintain efficiency.
  • Alignment Hardware: Special hardware may be needed to handle misaligned instructions to maintain the dual-instruction fetch rate in a two-way superscalar processor.

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